kannaDa barahada sollarime
A Grammar of Kannada Writing (This Is Kannada’s Own Grammar)
Title (Kannada): ಕನ್ನಡ ಬರಹದ ಸೊಲ್ಲರಿಮೆ (ಇದು ಕನ್ನಡದ್ದೇ ವ್ಯಾಕರಣ) Title (Eke): kannaDa barahada sollarime (idu kannaDigdE vyAkaraNa) Title (English): A Grammar of Kannada Writing (This Is Kannada’s Own Grammar) Author: D. N. Shankara Bhat (ಡಿ. ಎನ್. ಶಂಕರ ಭಟ್) Year: 2010–2019 Publisher: Baasha Prakashan (ಬಾಶಾಪ್ರಕಾಶನ), Heggodu, Sagara 577 417; phone 9900829345 Volumes: 7 total; 4 available digitally (Vol 1: ch 1–4; Vol 2: ch 5–6; Vol 3: ch 7–8; Vol 4: ch 9–10); Vols 5–7 pending Language: Kannada (written in hosa baraha — simplified spelling) Topic: Comprehensive descriptive grammar of written Kannada (ಕನ್ನಡ ಬರಹ), systematically treating phonology, morphology, word classes, inflection, and sentence structure on Kannada-native terms, free from Sanskrit grammatical categories
Book Overview
Kannada Barahada Sollarime is D. N. Shankara Bhat’s most comprehensive grammar of the Kannada language, focusing specifically on written Kannada (ಕನ್ನಡ ಬರಹ, “Kannada baraha”). The title translates as “A Grammar of Kannada Writing,” with the subtitle “This Is Kannada’s Own Grammar” (ಇದು ಕನ್ನಡದ್ದೇ ವ್ಯಾಕರಣ) pointedly declaring its distance from the Sanskrit-derived grammars that have historically been imposed on Kannada. In the preface Bhat states plainly that the “Kannada grammars” in common use are not Kannada grammars at all: instead of describing the actual rules that govern Kannada words (ಪದ), noun phrases (ಪದಕಂತೆ, padakante), and sentences (ಸೊಲ್ಲು, sollu), they try to fit Sanskrit grammatical rules onto Kannada data. The book is the culmination of a decades-long effort to write a grammar adequate to what Kannada actually does. It replaces the Sanskrit term vyakarana with the Kannada-native term sollarime — meaning roughly “deep understanding of sentences” — both to signal its methodological independence and to strip the association of grammar-learning with pointless difficulty. The book is written throughout in Bhat’s preferred simplified orthography (hosa baraha), which reduces the Kannada script by eliminating several letters not needed for modern Kannada phonology.
Volume 1 (ch 1–4) lays the descriptive foundations: phonology, the writing system, noun word structure, remaining word classes, and the complete inflectional paradigm. Volume 2 (ch 5–6) turns from words to phrases: verb usage (tense, aspect, modality, negation) and noun-phrase structure (argument roles, case semantics). Volume 3 (ch 7–8) covers syntax part 1: verbal arguments (ಎಸಕಪದದ ಪಾಂಗುಗಳು) and argument-frame alternations (ಪಾಂಗಿಟ್ಟಳದಲ್ಲಿ ಮಾರ್ಪಾಡು). Volume 4 (ch 9–10) covers syntax part 2: personal pronouns (ಆಡುಪದಗಳು) and demonstratives (ತೋರುಪದಗಳು). Volumes 5–7 are not yet digitally available.
Table of Contents
Volume 1 — Phonology, Morphology, Inflection
- Chapter 1 — Preview (ಮುನ್ನೋಟ)
- Chapter 2 — Word Structure: Nouns (ಪದಗಳ ಇಟ್ಟಳ: ಹೆಸರುಪದಗಳು)
- Chapter 3 — Word Structure: Remaining Word Classes (ಪದಗಳ ಇಟ್ಟಳ: ಉಳಿದ ಪದಗಳು)
- Chapter 4 — Inflectional Forms (ಪದರೂಪಗಳ ಇಟ್ಟಳ)
Volume 2 — Verb Usage, Noun Phrase Structure
Volume 3 — Syntax Part 1 → Full summary: vol3/en/summary
- Chapter 7 — Verbal Arguments (ಎಸಕಪದದ ಪಾಂಗುಗಳು)
- Chapter 8 — Argument Frame Alternations (ಪಾಂಗಿಟ್ಟಳದಲ್ಲಿ ಮಾರ್ಪಾಡುಗಳು)
Volume 4 — Syntax Part 2 → Full summary: vol4/en/summary
Key Reference
Chapter 1 — Preview
(ಮುನ್ನೋಟ)
1.1 Grammar and Sollarime
The chapter opens with a direct challenge to received Kannada grammar. The Sanskrit term vyakarana, Bhat argues, has become associated in the minds of Kannada learners with useless, tangled complexity — and this is no accident, because the rules in existing Kannada grammars are not Kannada rules but Sanskrit rules awkwardly adapted to Kannada data. Bhat replaces vyakarana with his own coinage sollarime (ಸೊಲ್ಲರಿಮೆ) — built from sollu (sentence/utterance) and arime (knowledge/understanding) — to signal both what grammar is really about (understanding the rules we all implicitly use when we speak or write) and what it should not be (an exercise in applying foreign categories). Grammar is not mysterious: every fluent Kannada speaker already knows hundreds of rules; they simply cannot articulate them. The book aims to make those unconscious rules explicit and accessible.
The chapter immediately demonstrates what a grammatical rule looks like in practice, using the dative suffix -ge (ಗೆ) as its worked example. The suffix has three surface forms — ge, ige, kke — and the choice among them is governed by a set of rules related to the phonological shape of the preceding noun and whether the noun refers to a human. Bhat walks through these rules step by step, showing how rules that every Kannada speaker implicitly knows can be stated precisely and simply once freed from Sanskrit grammatical vocabulary. The key terminology introduced here: kaTTale (ಕಟ್ಟಲೆ, rule), oTTu (ಒಟ್ಟು, suffix/affix), barige (ಬರಿಗೆ, letter/character), sollu (ಸೊಲ್ಲು, sentence).
1.2 The Many Varieties of Kannada
This section addresses the sociolinguistic context of the grammar. Kannada exists in many varieties: regional dialects, caste dialects, and registers. Bhat identifies ellara Kannada (ಎಲ್ಲರ ಕನ್ನಡ, “Kannada of all”) — the common written standard — as the variety this grammar describes. But he notes immediately that the current written standard is not yet genuinely “of all”: it is dominated by upper-caste literary Kannada with heavy Sanskrit borrowings and archaic forms that ordinary Kannada speakers do not use in everyday speech. His goal is a grammar that helps written Kannada become truly accessible to all speakers, not just the educated elite. This requires some reforms — most importantly the adoption of simplified orthography (hosa baraha) that removes letters for sounds not present in modern Kannada.
1.3 Speech and Writing
A theoretically important distinction underlies the entire series: the grammar of spoken Kannada (ಮಾತಿನ ಸೊಲ್ಲರಿಮೆ) and the grammar of written Kannada (ಬರಹದ ಸೊಲ್ಲರಿಮೆ) differ in several systematic ways. Written language is more conservative — phonological and morphological changes that have occurred in speech over centuries have not been incorporated into the written standard. Written language has different conventions for sentence length, use of subordinate clauses, and vocabulary. The grammar of written Kannada therefore cannot simply be read off from spoken dialects; it must be described in its own terms. The chapter discusses four reasons why changes that occur naturally in speech do not automatically enter writing: (1) the prestige of the written tradition, (2) standardisation for cross-regional readability, (3) the educational system, and (4) the conservative influence of classical literature. This section sets the scope of the series: the grammar of written (modern) Kannada.
1.4 The Writing System
Kannada writing uses an alphasyllabary (abugida) in which each primary character represents a consonant-plus-inherent-vowel syllable, and vowels other than the inherent a are represented by diacritics. The chapter explains the logic of the system: words (ಪದ) consist of letters (ಬರಿಗೆ), letters consist of sounds (ಉಲಿ), and the writing system encodes sounds systematically. The functions that words perform in sentences are surveyed in broad strokes as a preview of what the series will cover in detail: nouns identify (ಗುರುತಿಸುವ ಕೆಲಸ), verbs predicate actions (ಎಸಕವನ್ನು ತಿಳಿಸುವ ಕೆಲಸ), and qualifiers describe (ಪರಿಚೆಯನ್ನು ತಿಳಿಸುವ ಕೆಲಸ). The section on padakante (ಪದಕಂತೆ, noun phrase) and iTTaLa (ಇಟ್ಟಳ, structure/arrangement) previews the syntactic framework that later volumes will develop.
1.5–1.7 Sounds, Letters, Sandhi, Punctuation
Sections 1.5–1.7 cover the phonological and orthographic details. Section 1.5 introduces the Kannada vowel system (short and long: a, A, i, I, u, U, e, E, o, O) and the consonants, with particular attention to the retroflex series (T, D, N, L, retroflexes being a defining feature of Dravidian phonology absent from Sanskrit’s Indo-Aryan phonology). Section 1.6 treats the allophonic and graphemic variation in letters: how some letters represent multiple sounds in different environments, and how the writing system handles this. Section 1.7 covers sandhi — the systematic phonological changes that occur at morpheme and word boundaries — as a preview of the detailed sandhi rules in Chapter 2. A brief section on punctuation closes the chapter, noting that Kannada has adopted Indian and Western punctuation marks.
Chapter 2 — Word Structure: Nouns
(ಪದಗಳ ಇಟ್ಟಳ: ಹೆಸರುಪದಗಳು)
2.1 Overview
Chapter 2 opens with an overview (ಮುನ್ನೋಟ) stating that word structure encompasses: (1) sandhi rules — the phonological changes that words undergo when suffixes attach or when they combine with other words; (2) derivational morphology — how new words are built by attaching suffixes to bases; and (3) compounding — how two or more words join to form a new word. The chapter focuses on nouns, as nouns have the richest morphological inventory in Kannada: both the largest set of derivational suffixes and the most complex case-inflection paradigm.
2.2 Sandhi Rules
This is the most technically detailed section of Volume 1, covering eleven major phonological alternation patterns. These rules govern what happens at the boundary between a word stem and an affix (or between the two parts of a compound). The eleven patterns include: (1) deletion of a final short vowel before certain suffixes; (2) gemination (doubling) of an initial consonant after a short vowel; (3) the final -e of verb stems changing to -a before certain noun-deriving suffixes; (4) shortening of long vowels; (5) changes to the second vowel; (6) changes to r before consonants; (7) changes to nasal consonants before other consonants; (8) the special behaviour of D and r before vowels; (9) voicing of k and t to g and d after vowels; (10) changes of h, b, and m to v; and (11) deletion of final -u. For each pattern, multiple examples illustrate the rule, and exceptions are noted. These sandhi patterns are not unique to nouns — they apply throughout the morphological system — but they are introduced here because noun morphology provides the clearest contexts for establishing each rule.
2.3 Structure of Nouns
Kannada nouns can be: (a) primary (underived, monomorphemic) roots such as tale “head,” neeru “water,” mane “house”; (b) derived nouns (formed by adding a derivational suffix to a verb, another noun, or a qualifier); or (c) compound nouns (formed by joining two or more words). Section 2.3 surveys the primary nouns and notes their phonological shapes, setting up the derivational analysis that follows.
2.4 Derived Nouns
The core of Chapter 2 is a catalogue of noun-deriving suffixes, grouped by the base class they attach to.
Nouns from verbs (2.4.1): Sixteen suffixes derive nouns from verb stems, each with its own set of semantic functions. The most productive suffixes include:
- -ga (ಗ): derives action nouns from intransitive verbs
- -ike/-ge (ಇಕೆ/ಗೆ): the most versatile and polysemous suffix, deriving action nouns, result nouns, and in some cases instrument nouns
- -ta (ತ): derives abstract event nouns (e.g., kuNita “dance” from kuNi “to dance”)
- -ha (ಹ): derives nouns from specific verb classes
- -te (ತೆ), -ka (ಕ), -alu (ಅಲು), -a (ಅ): each with particular semantic and phonological restrictions
- -vu/pu/hu (ವು/ಪು/ಹು): a suffix group with related phonological shapes
- -me/ve (ಮೆ/ವೆ): derives abstract property nouns
- -vaLi (ವಳಿ), -vaN (ವಣ್): agent and manner nouns
- -tana (ತನ): derives abstract quality nouns
- Zero suffix: many Kannada nouns are simply identical to their verb roots, with no overt suffix (nagu “laughter/to laugh,” ODu “a run/to run”)
Nouns from nouns (2.4.2): A further set of suffixes derive nouns from other nouns, including the highly productive -iga (agent/occupation nouns: baaNiga “cart-driver” from baNDi “cart”), -gAra (agent nouns), -tana (abstract quality nouns), -itti and related feminine suffixes.
Nouns from qualifiers (2.4.3): Qualifiers can also serve as bases for noun derivation, typically with suffixes -a, -i, -tana, -pu/hu, and the zero suffix.
Section 2.4.4 compares the sets of suffixes across the three base classes, noting overlaps and differences, and Section 2.4.5 covers nouns derived from numeral roots.
2.5 Compound Words
Section 2.5 covers all three major types of Kannada compound words (ಜೋಡುಪದ): hesaru joDu (noun-headed compounds), esaka joDu (verb-headed compounds), and parice joDu (qualifier-headed compounds). The section explains diagnostic tests for distinguishing true compounds from syntactic noun phrases (discussed in detail in later volumes): compounds have unpredictable meaning, resist separate modification of their parts, and show phonological fusion. Subsections describe the sandhi changes that occur at compound boundaries and give examples of each structural type. The section also discusses the relationship between noun-noun compounds and noun phrases, showing how the difference between kALu maNe (a “footstool” — compound) and kALa maNe (a “black house” — noun phrase) hinges on both semantic and phonological properties.
Chapter 3 — Word Structure: Remaining Word Classes
(ಪದಗಳ ಇಟ್ಟಳ: ಉಳಿದ ಪದಗಳು)
3.2 Verbs
Chapter 3 opens with an overview noting that, unlike nouns, most primary Kannada verbs have no internal morphological structure — they are mono-morphemic roots. The chapter therefore focuses on derived and compound verbs. Section 3.2.1 covers verb-deriving suffixes:
- -isu (ಇಸು): the productive causative suffix, which derives causative verbs from both intransitive and transitive bases (muLugu “to sink” → muLugisu “to cause to sink/to immerse”)
- -cu (ಚು): an archaic, no longer productive suffix visible in fossilised forms
- -gu (ಗು), -ku (ಕು), -pu/vu/hu (ಪು/ವು/ಹು): restricted productive and partially productive suffixes
Section 3.2.2 details the phonological changes (sandhi) that occur when these verb-forming suffixes attach, and 3.2.3 categorises the suffixes by their productivity.
3.3 Compound Verbs
The kUDupada (ಕೂಡುಪದ, compound verb) section is extensive, covering two main structural types:
Type 1 — First-word-based (3.3.1): The compound’s meaning is determined primarily by the first word, which may be a noun, a qualifier, or a non-finite form of a verb. Examples: bAraMaDu (to send for, from bA + maDu), uNabaDisu (to serve food, from uNu + baDisu). Special treatment is given to compounds where the first element is the conjunctive (ಮೊದಲೆಸಕ) form of a verb — a particularly productive pattern in Kannada.
Type 2 — Second-word-based (3.3.2): The second verb provides the main meaning, while the first encodes additional semantic content such as completive, benefactive, inceptive, or distributive aspect. The twelve most productive “light verbs” used as second elements are listed and discussed: koLLu (reflexive), ADu (frequentative), Agu/mADu (change of state), iDu (posture), koDu (benefactive), kaTTu (firmness), hOgu (finality), bILu (suddenness), hAku (disposal), keDu (deterioration), biDu (completion), ikku (remaining).
Section 3.3.3 describes the sandhi changes at compound verb boundaries.
3.4 Qualifiers
Qualifiers (ಪರಿಚೆಪದ, paricepada) are the word class that modifies nouns — roughly corresponding to adjectives and adverbs in European grammatical traditions. A distinctive Kannnada-native property noted by Bhat: qualifiers do not inflect for gender, number, or case (unlike Sanskrit adjectives), a fact that has important consequences for their internal structure. Section 3.4.1 surveys primary (underived) qualifier roots such as biLi “white,” doDDa “big,” oLLe “good,” kappa “black.” Section 3.4.2 covers hesaru parice (nominal qualifiers derived from nouns), with suffixes -alu, -ku, -a, -i, -u, -e, -ka. Section 3.4.3 covers esaka parice (participial qualifiers derived from verbs) — the three verbal adjective (participle) forms are bareyuva “writing” (present-future), bareda “having written” (past), and bareyada “not having written” (negative). Section 3.4.4 covers paricepada derived from other qualifiers. Section 3.4.5 treats echo words (aNakapada, ಅಣಕಪದ) — the productive Kannada process of reduplication with phonological modification for approximate or distributive meanings.
3.5–3.6 Demonstratives, Numerals, Loanwords
Section 3.5 covers demonstrative words (ಆಡುಪದ, ADupada — words like idu “this,” adu “that,” ivanu “he/this person”), noting that they have two structurally distinct sub-parts that produce different inflectional patterns. Section 3.6 covers numeral words and their derivation. The final section treats borrowed words (ಎರವಲು ಪದ), covering Sanskrit loans in both tatsama (unadapted) and tadbhava (phonologically nativised) forms, and also borrowings from English.
Chapter 4 — Inflectional Forms
(ಪದರೂಪಗಳ ಇಟ್ಟಳ)
4.1 Sandhi in Inflection
Chapter 4 is the systematic treatment of all inflectional forms — the padarUpa (ಪದರೂಪ, word-form) paradigms for verbs and nouns. Section 4.1 restates the three most important sandhi rules that apply throughout inflectional morphology: (1) deletion of final -u; (2) insertion of -y- before vowels; (3) deletion of -a before vowels. These three rules, applied in the right order, explain the majority of the surface phonological variation in Kannada inflectional forms.
4.2 Verb Forms
Kannada finite verbs (ಕೊನೆರೂಪ, “final forms” of the verb) have a paradigm of 36 forms: 23 tiLivu (ತಿಳಿವು, “informational”) forms and 13 naduRUpa (ನಡುರೂಪ, “non-final/medial”) forms. The 23 finite forms divide into:
- tiLivurUpa (ತಿಳಿವುರೂಪ, declarative/informational) forms in two tenses (past and non-past), each multiplied by three person distinctions — ADuga (1st: speaker), kELuga (2nd: hearer), heratu (3rd: other) — and two number distinctions (singular and plural), minus the gender distinction that is neutralised in plural — giving 9 forms per tense = 18 total declarative finite forms
- arikErUpa (ಅರಿಕೆರೂಪ, imperative/directive) forms: 5 forms, not distinguished for tense or gender
The 13 non-finite forms include: 3 participial/qualifier forms (bareyuva, bareda, bareyada), 4 converb/connective forms (bareyalu purpose, baredu sequence, bareyuttA simultaneous, bareyade negative), 1 conditional form (baredare), 3 nominalized forms (bareyuvudu, baredUdu, bareyadadU), and 2 -ike nominalized forms.
4.3–4.7 Finite Forms, Tense, Agreement, and Non-Finite Forms
Sections 4.5–4.6 give the complete paradigmatic tables for the present-future (mUMbottu, ಮುಂಬೊತ್ತು) and past (hiMbottu, ಹಿಂಬೊತ್ತು) tense markers and the gender-number agreement suffixes (guruta oTTu, ಗುರ್ತದ ಒಟ್ಟು). Irregular and defective forms (kore pada, ಕೊರೆಪದ — “defective/short” verbs) are covered in 4.5.6 and 4.6.3. Section 4.7 systematically covers all 13 non-finite forms and their morphological analysis.
4.8 Noun Forms and Case Suffixes
Section 4.8 describes the inflectional paradigm of nouns. Kannada nouns inflect for number (singular vs. plural, marked by -galu) and case (eight case relations expressed by postposition-like suffixes). The full system of esaka pattuge oTTu (ಎಸಕಪತ್ತುಗೆಯ ಒಟ್ಟು, “verb-relation” case suffixes, corresponding to nominative, accusative, instrumental, dative, ablative, genitive, locative) and hesaru pattuge oTTu (ಹೆಸರುಪತ್ತುಗೆಯ ಒಟ್ಟು, “noun-relation” suffixes) are laid out with full phonological conditioning. The complex allomorphy of the dative suffix -ge/ige/kke, introduced in Chapter 1, is now fully analysed with all its conditions and exceptions in section 4.8.2.
Chapter 5 — Verb Usage
(ಎಸಕಪದಗಳ ಬಳಕೆ)
5.1 Overview of Verb Forms and Auxiliaries
Chapter 5 opens Volume 2 by distinguishing two major categories of verbs in Kannada sentences: tiruLesakapada (ತಿರುಳೆಸಕಪದ, “main/central verb”) and neravesakapada (ನೆರವೆಸಕಪದ, “auxiliary verb”). Main verbs carry the core predicate meaning of the sentence; auxiliary verbs (such as iru “be,” Agu “become,” bahu du “may,” bEku “must,” bal “know how to,” Ar “unable to,” ol “unwilling to”) modify the meaning of the main verb in the dimensions of aspect and modality. The section notes important asymmetries between main verbs and auxiliaries in their form inventories: main verbs have the full 36-form paradigm, whereas most auxiliaries have a restricted subset of forms. The auxiliary iru is unique in having three tense distinctions (past, present, future) where most verbs have only two (past and non-past), giving it 42 forms in total. The section explains why illa “there is not / not” is analysed as a separate lexical item rather than as the negative form of iru, invoking both synchronic distributional evidence and diachronic Dravidian etymology (iru derives from Proto-Dravidian *ir-, illa from *cil-).
5.2 Tense Reference
Section 5.2 distinguishes two types of tense reference in Kannada:
1. Sentence-time reference (sollu pattuge, ಸೊಲ್ಲುಪತ್ತುಗೆ): The action is located in time relative to the moment of utterance. Expressed by the two tense suffixes -uttu/uttA (ಮುಂಬೊತ್ತು, non-past/future) and -id/-d (ಹಿಂಬೊತ್ತು, past).
2. Action-time reference (esaka pattuge, ಎಸಕಪತ್ತುಗೆ): The action is located in time relative to another action in the same sentence. Expressed by three connective/converb forms: mOdalEsaka (ಮೊದಲೆಸಕ, “prior action” converb with -du), mArEsaka (ಮಾರೆಸಕ, “purposive” converb with -alu), and oDanEsaka (ಒಡನೆಸಕ, “simultaneous” converb with -uttA). Bhat argues that sentence-time reference (marking whether the event precedes or follows the moment of speech) is grammatically obligatory in Kannada — the tense suffix cannot be omitted from any finite clause — whereas aspectual and modal information (ಇಟ್ಟಳ and ನಿಲುವು) can often be left unspecified.
5.3–5.5 Aspect, Modality, and Negation
Section 5.3 analyses the three types of temporal aspect (ಹೊತ್ತಿನ ಇಟ್ಟಳ) that the auxiliary iru expresses when combined with the three converb forms of a main verb: bareyaliruttALe (inceptive/prospective: she is about to write), bareduiruttALe (perfect/resultative: she has written [and the result persists]), bareyuttiruttALe (progressive/continuous: she is in the process of writing). Section 5.4 analyses speaker stance (ಆಡುಗನ ನಿಲುವು) as expressed by the modal auxiliaries bahUdu (epistemic possibility: “may”), bEku (deontic necessity: “must/should”), bal (ability: “can”), Ar (inability: “cannot”), ol (unwillingness: “will not”). These auxiliaries take the purposive converb (mArEsaka, -alu) form of the main verb. Section 5.5 covers negation, showing how the negative participial form (bareyada) and the negative converb (bareyade) interact with tense and the auxiliary system, and describing the special properties of the negative auxiliary illa.
Chapter 6 — Noun Phrase Structure
(ಪದಕಂತೆಗಳ ಇಟ್ಟಳ)
6.1–6.3 Verb Arguments and Semantic Roles
Chapter 6 examines the structure of noun phrases (ಪದಕಂತೆ, padakante) and their relationship to the verbs that select them. Section 6.1 introduces the concept of pAngu (ಪಾಂಗು, semantic participant/argument role): every verb in Kannada requires a specific set of participants to complete its meaning. The mADuga (ಮಾಡುಗ, agent — the entity that performs the action) and the paDuvaga (ಪಡುವಗ, patient — the entity that undergoes the action) are the two most basic roles, but Kannada verbs can require additional roles: recipient, location, source, goal, instrument. The chapter systematically maps the set of possible semantic roles and shows which case suffixes (inflectional endings) mark each role.
Section 6.2 analyses the relationship between a verb’s semantic type and the number and types of participants it requires: intransitive verbs (those requiring only an agent or an experiencer) contrast with transitive verbs (those requiring both an agent and a patient). A further sub-distinction covers experiencer predicates — verbs like hedigu “to be afraid,” irADu “to please” — where the grammatical subject is the entity affected by the state rather than the agent causing it. Section 6.3 introduces the notion of argument alternations: pairs of related verbs such as intransitive muLugu “to sink” and causative muLugisu “to cause to sink/immerse,” showing how the addition of the -isu causative suffix adds an agent argument and shifts the original agent to patient position.
6.4–6.6 Case Semantics
Sections 6.4–6.6 provide a detailed semantic analysis of each of Kannada’s case suffixes, going beyond the purely morphological description in Volume 1, Chapter 4. The nominative (unmarked) indicates the subject of a verb. The accusative (-annu) indicates the patient of a transitive verb but also has uses in time duration and distance expressions. The instrumental (-inda) expresses instrument, manner, cause, and source. The dative (-ge/-ige/-kke) is particularly polysemous, expressing goal, recipient, beneficiary, experiencer subject, and purpose. The genitive (-a/-na/-in) expresses possession and attribution. The locative (-alli) expresses static location. The ablative/source use of -inda and -alli are contrasted. Bhat shows how the semantics of the cases can be understood by reference to the spatial and temporal relationships they prototypically express, extending to more abstract meanings by metaphorical extension — an analysis consistent with his broader Dravidian-native approach.
Chapter 7 — Verbal Arguments
(ಎಸಕಪದದ ಪಾಂಗುಗಳು)
Chapter 7 opens Volume 3 with a systematic analysis of the argument structure of Kannada verbs — the set of noun-phrase participants (ಪಾಂಗುಗಳು, pAngugaLu) that each verb obligatorily requires. Building on the preliminary treatment in Chapter 6, this chapter provides the full typology of argument frames: one-argument (intransitive), two-argument (transitive), three-argument (ditransitive), and zero-argument (meteorological) predicates. For each argument-type, the chapter analyses the case marking of each participant and the semantic constraints on what kinds of entities can fill each role.
Key topics covered:
- The full pAngu (argument-role) typology: agent, patient, recipient, experiencer, stimulus, source, goal, location
- How Kannada verbs encode their argument frames via case-marking and agreement
- Verb-class groupings by argument-frame type
- Interaction between argument-frame and the auxiliary system
For chapter-by-chapter detail, see the dedicated Volume 3 English summary.
Chapter 8 — Argument Frame Alternations
(ಪಾಂಗಿಟ್ಟಳದಲ್ಲಿ ಮಾರ್ಪಾಡುಗಳು)
Chapter 8 studies systematic alternations in argument frames — the phenomenon whereby a single verb root can participate in different argument configurations with related but distinct meanings. This is one of the most theoretically rich chapters in the series.
Key topics covered:
- Causative alternations (muLugu “sink” ↔ muLugisu “cause to sink”): adding an agent, shifting existing arguments
- Passive-like detransitivizations in Kannada
- Reflexive and middle-voice alternations
- Applicative constructions that add a beneficiary or locative argument
- The interaction of alternations with case-marking and information structure
For chapter-by-chapter detail, see the dedicated Volume 3 English summary.
Chapter 9 — Personal Pronouns
(ಆಡುಪದಗಳು)
Chapter 9 opens Volume 4 with a comprehensive treatment of personal pronouns (ಆಡುಪದಗಳು, ADupadagaLu) in Kannada. Unlike nouns, pronouns have highly suppletive paradigms — the forms used for different cases are not built from a single stem — and they encode dimensions of meaning (person, number, social register, clusivity) that nouns do not. Bhat analyses pronouns as a word class with their own internal grammar.
Key topics covered:
- First, second, and third person pronouns across singular/plural and register (polite vs. intimate)
- Inclusive vs. exclusive distinctions in first-person plural (nAvu vs. nAvu/nammu)
- Case paradigms of all pronouns (nominative, accusative, dative, genitive, instrumental, locative)
- Reflexive pronouns (tAnu, tannu) and their binding properties
- Emphatic and reciprocal pronouns
- The interaction of pronouns with demonstrative and anaphoric systems
For chapter-by-chapter detail, see the dedicated Volume 4 English summary.
Chapter 10 — Demonstratives
(ತೋರುಪದಗಳು)
Chapter 10 covers the Kannada demonstrative system (ತೋರುಪದಗಳು, tOrupadagaLu) — the network of proximal/distal distinctions that organise reference to entities in space, time, and discourse. Kannada has a three-way spatial contrast (proximal i-, medial a-, distal A-) rather than the simple two-way distinction of many European languages, and Bhat analyses how this three-way system maps onto discourse-anaphoric functions.
Key topics covered:
- The three-way proximal/medial/distal deictic contrast (idu/adu/Adu, ivanu/avanu/Avanu)
- Demonstrative pronouns vs. demonstrative qualifiers (used attributively before nouns)
- Case paradigms of demonstratives and their phonological irregularities
- Discourse-anaphoric use: how demonstratives track entities introduced earlier in text
- Interaction of demonstratives with definite/indefinite reference in Kannada
- The relationship between demonstratives and the pronoun system (chapter 9)
For chapter-by-chapter detail, see the dedicated Volume 4 English summary.
Key Terms Glossary
| Kannada | English | Eke (Romanisation) |
|---|---|---|
| ಸೊಲ್ಲರಿಮೆ | grammar / linguistics of sentences | sollarime |
| ಸೊಲ್ಲು | sentence / utterance | sollu |
| ಕಟ್ಟಲೆ | rule | kaTTale |
| ಒಟ್ಟು | affix / suffix | oTTu |
| ಬರಿಗೆ | letter / character | barige |
| ಉಲಿ | sound / phoneme | uli |
| ಪದ | word | pada |
| ಹೆಸರುಪದ | noun | hesarupada |
| ಎಸಕಪದ | verb | esakapada |
| ಪರಿಚೆಪದ | qualifier / adjective | paricepada |
| ಪದಕಂತೆ | noun phrase / word group | padakante |
| ಪದರೂಪ | word form (inflected form) | padarUpa |
| ಜೋಡುಪದ | compound word | jODupada |
| ಕೂಡುಪದ | compound verb | kUDupada |
| ಇಟ್ಟಳ | structure / arrangement | iTTaLa |
| ಹೊತ್ತು | time / tense | hottu |
| ಮುಂಬೊತ್ತು | non-past / future tense | mUMbottu |
| ಹಿಂಬೊತ್ತು | past tense | hiMbottu |
| ತಿರುಳೆಸಕಪದ | main / central verb | tiruLesakapada |
| ನೆರವೆಸಕಪದ | auxiliary verb | neravesakapada |
| ಮೊದಲೆಸಕ | prior-action converb (sequence) | modalEsaka |
| ಮಾರೆಸಕ | purposive converb | mArEsaka |
| ಒಡನೆಸಕ | simultaneous converb | oDanEsaka |
| ಪಾಂಗು | semantic participant / argument role | pAngu |
| ಮಾಡುಗ | agent | mADuga |
| ಪಡುವಗ | patient | paDuvaga |
| ಸೇರಿಕೆ | combination / sandhi | sErike |
| ಪತ್ತುಗೆ | reference / relation | pattuge |
| ನಿಲುವು | stance / viewpoint | niluvu |
| ಅರಿಕೆರೂಪ | imperative form | arikErUpa |
| ಜೋಡುಸೊಲ್ಲು | compound sentence | jODusollu |
| ಅಡಕಸೊಲ್ಲು | embedded / complex sentence | aDakasollu |
| ಸುಳುಸೊಲ್ಲು | simple sentence | suLusollu |
| ಆಡುಪದ | personal pronoun | ADupada |
| ತೋರುಪದ | demonstrative | tOrupada |
| ಒಳಹುರುಳು | entailment / implicature | oLahurULu |
| ಮುನ್ನೆಣಿಕೆ | presupposition | munnENike |
| ನೆಲೆಗೊಳಿಸು | to ground / establish in discourse | nelegolisu |
| ಹೊಸಬರಹ | simplified spelling (hosa baraha) | hosa baraha |
| ಎರವಲು ಪದ | loanword / borrowed word | eravalu pada |
| ಬರಹ | writing / written form | baraha |
| ಹುರುಳು | meaning | huruLu |
This document is an English-language overview of D. N. Shankara Bhat’s ಕನ್ನಡ ಬರಹದ ಸೊಲ್ಲರಿಮೆ (2010–2019, 7 volumes; 4 available digitally). Volume 1 full text: vol1/kn/full. Volume 2 full text: vol2/kn/full. Volume 3 full text and detailed summary: vol3/kn/full · vol3/en/summary. Volume 4 full text and detailed summary: vol4/kn/full · vol4/en/summary. For the related one-volume grammar see Book 33 — ಕನ್ನಡ ಸೊಲ್ಲರಿಮೆ. For other DNS Bhat books in this collection, see the dnsbhat directory.