Kannada Barahada Sollarime — Volume 3: English Summary
Full title: ಕನ್ನಡ ಬರಹದ ಸೊಲ್ಲರಿಮೆ (Kannada Barahada Sollarime) Author: D.N. Shankara Bhat Volume 3 covers: Chapters 7–8 — Verbal Arguments and Argument Frame Alternations
Chapter 7 — Verbal Arguments
(ಅಧ್ಯಾಯ ೭ — ಎಸಕಪದದ ಪಾಂಗುಗಳು)
7.1 Overview
(7.1 ಮುನ್ನೋಟ)
- Kannada sentences are divided into two fundamental types: existential sentences (ಇರುಹ, using the verb ಇರು “to be/exist”) and action sentences (ಎಸಕ, using the vast range of action verbs).
- Kannada has over 1,000 action verbs, each with its own argument frame (ಪಾಂಗಿಟ್ಟಳ) specifying the participants it requires.
- Existential verbs can be omitted in certain contexts (e.g., nominal predicates); action verbs cannot be omitted without changing meaning.
- The chapter surveys how participant roles (ಪಾಂಗುಗಳು) are distinguished, encoded, and organized into frames.
Subsections sub-7-1-1 through sub-7-1-4 introduce the conceptual framework: the distinction between core (ಇಟ್ಟಳ) and peripheral (ನೆರವು) participants, and how these map onto grammatical relations.
7.2 Frames of the Existential Verb ‘iru’
(7.2 ಇರುಹಪದದ ಪಾಂಗಿಟ್ಟಳಗಳು)
- The existential verb ಇರು (“be/exist”) anchors three distinct sub-frames, each encoding a different ontological relationship.
- Existence frame (ಇರುವಿಕೆ-ಇಟ್ಟಳ): X is located in Y — the entity and its location are the two core arguments.
- Predication frame (ಪರಿಚೆ-ಇಟ್ಟಳ): X is Y — equating or classifying an entity with a property or class.
- Possession frame (ಪತ್ತುಗೆ-ಇಟ್ಟಳ): X has Y — expressing ownership or association, typically with dative-marked possessor.
- Temporality interacts with all three frames; action verbs can also appear in existential meaning in certain habitual or stative constructions.
Subsections sub-7-2-1 through sub-7-2-8 work through the paradigm cases and edge cases of each sub-frame, including embedded and complex predicate forms.
7.3 Frames of Action Verbs
(7.3 ಎಸಕಪದಗಳ ಪಾಂಗಿಟ್ಟಳಗಳು)
- Action verbs are organized by valency: zero-argument, one-argument, two-argument, and three-argument frames.
- Spontaneous verbs (ಆಗುಹ ಪದಗಳು): Unaccusative and unergative verb classes where no external causer is expressed; the single argument is the undergoer.
- Realis vs irrealis distinction (ನನಸಿನ/ನೆನಸಿನ ಹುರುಳು) is encoded within argument frames — certain frames are restricted to hypothetical or counterfactual contexts.
- The section establishes that transitivity in Kannada is not binary but gradient, based on the combination of argument number, case marking, and verb semantics.
Subsections sub-7-3-2, sub-6-3-3, and sub-7-3-4 address spontaneous-verb frames, the realis/irrealis alternation, and the interaction of aspect with argument realization.
7.4 Core Argument Types
(7.4 ಇಟ್ಟಳದ ಪಾಂಗುಗಳ ಬಗೆಗಳು)
- ಆಗುಗ (Aguga) — undergoer/patient: The participant that undergoes the change or is affected. Marked with nominative (for subjects of spontaneous verbs) or accusative/dative.
- ಮಾಡುಗ (mADuga) — causer/agent: The volitional initiator of the action. Typically the nominative subject of transitive verbs.
- ಈಡು (IDu) — theme: The entity that is transferred, moved, or the content of a transaction. Distinct from the undergoer by its semantic status as “what is handled.”
- ಗುರಿ (guri) — goal: The endpoint of directed motion or transfer; marked with dative or locative case.
- ಸುರು (suru) — source: The starting point of motion or transfer; marked with ablative case.
- ಜಾಗ (jAga) — location: The place where the action occurs or the entity is situated; marked with locative.
- Each role has characteristic case-marking patterns and distinct behavioral diagnostics (e.g., promotion to subject, appearance in passive-like constructions).
Subsections sub-7-4-1 through sub-7-4-11 provide detailed case studies for each role, including verbs that take unusual case patterns and roles that can shift across alternations.
7.5 Temporal and Manner Adjuncts
(7.5 ನೆರವು ಪಾಂಗುಗಳು — ಹೊತ್ತು ಮತ್ತು ಇಂಬು)
- ಹೊತ್ತು (hottu) — time: Covers both point-in-time (“at noon”) and duration (“for two hours”); encoded with various postpositions or bare case forms depending on type.
- ಇಂಬು (imbu) — manner: Describes how the action is performed; typically expressed through instrumental case, adverbs, or reduplication.
- These are classified as peripheral (ನೆರವು) rather than core participants: they can be added to almost any verb frame without changing the valency structure.
- The distinction between adjunct and core argument is argued on the basis of obligatoriness, case flexibility, and behavior in frame alternations.
Subsections sub-7-5-1 through sub-7-5-3 examine specific temporal and manner expressions and their interaction with aspect and evidentiality.
7.6 Other Adjunct Arguments
(7.6 ಬೇರೆ ನೆರವು ಪಾಂಗುಗಳು)
- Verbal reach (ಮುಟ್ಟು): Expresses the extent or limit reached by the action.
- Path (ಕಡೆ): The trajectory through which motion proceeds, distinct from both source and goal.
- Extent (ಅಳಬು): Measure or degree to which an action or property holds.
- Companion (ಒಡನಾಡಿ): The entity accompanying the agent; marked with comitative postpositions.
- Comparison (ಹೋಲುಗ): The standard of comparison in comparative constructions.
- Uncontrolled causer (ಹಟ್ಟಾಟಿ ತಪ್ಪಿದ ಮಾಡುಗ): A causer who acts without full volition or control — a semantic sub-type of agent.
Subsections sub-7-6-1 through sub-7-6-6 each treat one of these adjunct types in detail, with examples from natural Kannada text.
Chapter 8 — Alternations in Argument Frames
(ಅಧ್ಯಾಯ ೮ — ಪಾಂಗಿಟ್ಟಳದಲ್ಲಿ ಮಾರ್ಪಾಡುಗಳು)
8.1 Overview
(8.1 ಮುನ್ನೋಟ)
- Argument frames are not fixed: Kannada employs three major strategies for systematically altering them.
- Strategy 1: Use the same verb with a different argument configuration (adding, removing, or reordering participants without morphological change).
- Strategy 2: Change the verb’s morphology — add causative (-isu), reflexive/middle (-koLLu), or reciprocal affixes — producing a new frame.
- Strategy 3: Nominalize the verb, which restructures the argument frame into a nominal domain.
Subsections sub-8-1-1 through sub-8-1-3 survey the landscape of alternation types and motivate the chapter’s organization.
8.2 Alternations Without Verb Change
(8.2 ಎಸಕಪದವನ್ನು ಮಾರ್ಪಡಿಸದೆ)
- The same verb can participate in multiple argument frames without any morphological modification — the frame shifts via argument omission, addition, or case alternation.
- Action verb frames permit middle-type alternations (agent omitted, undergoer promoted) using only case marking and word order.
- Existential verb ಇರು also participates in frame alternations: e.g., possessive vs locative readings of the same surface form.
- These zero-morphology alternations demonstrate that argument structure is partly determined by context and case, not solely by verb form.
Subsections sub-8-2-1 and sub-8-2-2 treat action-verb and iru-verb alternations respectively.
8.3 Causative Verb Frames (-isu)
(8.3 ಇಸುವೆಸಕ ಪದದ ಪಾಂಗಿಟ್ಟಳಗಳು)
- The suffix -isu forms causative verbs: e.g., ಒಡೆ “break” → ಒಡೆಸು “cause to break”; ಓಡು “run” → ಓಡಿಸು “make run.”
- The causative adds one argument — the causee (the entity that is made to perform or undergo the action) — to the base frame.
- Direct causation (causer acts directly on the situation) vs indirect causation (causer acts on the causee who then acts) produce different case marking for the causee: dative for indirect, accusative for direct.
- Adding -isu to compound verbs is also productive, with the causative applying to the entire compound.
- When the base verb already has an undergoer, the causative frame has three core arguments: agent, causee, and undergoer.
Subsections sub-8-3-1 through sub-8-3-7 systematically work through one-argument, two-argument, and three-argument base verbs, and the semantic distinctions that arise.
8.4 Reflexive/Middle Verb Frames (-koLLu)
(8.4 ಸೇರಿಕೆಯೆಸಕದ ಪಾಂಗಿಟ್ಟಳಗಳು)
- The suffix -koLLu (appended after the conjunctive participle) forms reflexive or middle verb constructions: the agent and theme/undergoer collapse into one co-referential participant.
- The merged argument is both instigator and recipient of the action, yielding a “self-directed” or “for one’s own benefit” reading.
- Several distinct semantic nuances arise: reflexive proper (X does X to X), benefactive middle (X does something for X’s benefit), and spontaneous middle (X undergoes without external cause).
- Compound forms with -koLLu are highly productive and extend into idiomatic expressions.
Subsections sub-8-4-1 through sub-8-4-4 distinguish the reflexive, benefactive, and spontaneous readings and provide diagnostics.
8.5 Reciprocal Verb Frames
(8.5 ಎದುರೆಸಕದ ಪಾಂಗಿಟ್ಟಳಗಳು)
- Reciprocal constructions use the pattern ಒಬ್ಬರಿಗೊಬ್ಬರು (obbarigobbaru) — “each other/one another” — with a plural or conjoined subject.
- Distributive reciprocal (ಒಬ್ಬೊಬ್ಬರಿಗೂ, obbobbarigU): Each member of the set performs the action independently toward each other member.
- Relational reciprocal (obbarigobbaru): The relationship itself is symmetric between two participants.
- The timing of inner events within the reciprocal (simultaneous vs sequential) affects interpretation and is encoded through aspect.
- Various semantic extensions: cooperative action, competitive action, iterative reciprocal, and partial reciprocals (not all pairs interact).
Subsections sub-8-5-1 through sub-8-5-11 are extensive, covering each semantic sub-type with examples and interaction with tense/aspect/modality.
8.6 Complex Predicate Argument Frames
(8.6 ಕೂಡುಪದಗಳ ಪಾಂಗಿಟ್ಟಳಗಳು)
- Complex predicates (ಕೂಡುಪದ) combine a nominal or adjectival element with a light verb; the combined unit has a single argument frame.
- Noun-containing compounds: The noun contributes the core semantic content; the light verb (ಮಾಡು, ಆಗು, ಕೊಡು, etc.) supplies argument structure and morphosyntax.
- Adjective-containing compounds: Adjective + ಆಗು or ಮಾಡು; the adjective specifies the resulting state.
- Conjunctive forms: Two verb forms chained via the conjunctive participle, where the second verb may be an auxiliary contributing argument-structural meaning (completive, attemptive, etc.).
- Agreement between the two verbal elements in complex predicates follows specific patterns that can differ from simple verbs.
Subsections sub-8-6-1 through sub-8-6-6 analyze each compound type and the agreement and argument-sharing patterns they exhibit.
8.7 Agent Suppression
(8.7 ಮಾಡುಗವನ್ನು ಮರೆಮಾಚುವುದು)
- Kannada lacks a dedicated passive morphology comparable to Indo-European languages; agent suppression is achieved by other means.
- The primary mechanism is the auxiliary ಪಡು (paDu) — a passive-like construction where the undergoer appears as subject and the agent is absent or demoted.
- Implicit agent constructions: Agent is simply omitted from the surface; the verb remains in its active form. Context licenses the interpretation.
- The ಪಡು construction differs from a true passive in that it carries a nuance of involuntary experience or adversity for the subject.
- Together, these strategies allow Kannada speakers to topicalize the undergoer and background the causer without dedicated passive morphology.
Subsections sub-8-7-1 and sub-8-7-2 treat the ಪಡು auxiliary and implicit-agent constructions respectively.
Key Concepts
| Kannada Term | Eke | English |
|---|---|---|
| ಎಸಕ | esaka | action / event |
| ಇರುಹ | iruha | state / existence |
| ಪಾಂಗು | pAngu | argument (semantic role) |
| ಪಾಂಗಿಟ್ಟಳ | pAngITTaLa | argument frame / valency |
| ಆಗುಗ | Aguga | undergoer / patient |
| ಮಾಡುಗ | mADuga | causer / agent |
| ಈಡು | IDu | theme (transferred participant) |
| ಗುರಿ | guri | goal |
| ಸುರು | suru | source |
| ಜಾಗ | jAga | location |
| ಹೊತ್ತು | hottu | time (adjunct) |
| ಇಂಬು | imbu | manner (adjunct) |
| ನೆರವು ಪಾಂಗು | nerevu pAngu | adjunct argument |
| ಇಸುವೆಸಕ | isuvEsaka | causative verb |
| ಸೇರಿಕೆಯೆಸಕ | sErikeyesaka | reflexive / middle verb |
| ಎದುರೆಸಕ | eduresaka | reciprocal verb |
| ಕೂಡುಪದ | kUDupada | complex predicate |
| ಪಡು | paDu | passive auxiliary |
Cross-References
| Related Book | Connection |
|---|---|
| 07 Vol1 — Phonology | Lays out the phonological base; vol3 syntax builds on this |
| 07 Vol2 — Morphology | Verb morphology (-isu, -koLLu) analyzed in vol3 argument alternations |
| 07 Vol4 — Pronouns/Deixis | Continues: pronouns as special argument-bearers |
| 33 — ಕನ್ನಡ ಸೊಲ್ಲರಿಮೆ (YouTube) | Lecture series companion to this book series |