kannaDa nuDi naDeDu banda dAri

The Path Travelled by the Kannada Language

Title (Kannada): ಕನ್ನಡ ನುಡಿ ನಡೆದು ಬಂದ ದಾರಿ Title (Eke): kannaDa nuDi naDedu banda dAri Author: D. N. Shankara Bhat (ಡಿ. ಎನ್. ಶಂಕರ ಬಟ್) Year: 2007 Publisher: Bhasha Prakashan Language: Kannada (hosa baraha / simplified spelling) Topic: Historical phonology and historical grammar — the path of change from Proto-Dravidian to modern Kannada

Book Overview

This book is a systematic account of how the Kannada language evolved from its Proto-Dravidian origins to its modern form. Written for an educated Kannada-speaking audience rather than specialist linguists, it traces the main phonological and grammatical changes that separate modern Kannada from the reconstructed ancestor language Proto-Dravidian (ಮೂಲದ್ರಾವಿಡ), from Old Kannada inscriptions, and from sibling languages like Tamil, Telugu, and Malayalam. The author situates Kannada within the South Dravidian sub-branch, which includes Tamil, Malayalam, Tulu, Kodagu, Toda, Kota, Irula, Kurumba, and Badaga, and shows throughout how comparison with these languages illuminates what Kannada has changed and what it has conserved.

The book covers six broad domains: root vowels, affix vowels, stop consonants, other consonants, word structure, and sentence structure. In each domain the author reconstructs the Proto-Dravidian form, traces the changes that led to the Kannada spoken in different dialects, and highlights where the coastal dialect (particularly Havyaka Kannada) preserves archaic features that the inland literary dialect has innovated away from. A recurrent theme is the divergence between the coastal Kannada dialects, which are more conservative, and the inland dialects, which have undergone vowel raising and other innovations. The inclusion of Badaga — a Nilgiri variety often classified separately — as a Kannada sub-dialect is one of the book’s distinctive positions.

The book is also a sustained demonstration of DNS Bhat’s native Kannada grammatical terminology. Throughout, grammatical labels are rendered in Dravidian-root Kannada rather than Sanskrit-derived terms: stops are ತಡೆಯುಲಿ (taDeyuli), nasals are ಮೂಗುಲಿ (mUguli), syllables are ಉಲಿಕಂತೆ (ulikante), and so on. The text is written in hosa baraha (simplified spelling), which itself instantiates the principle that Kannada can function on Dravidian terms without Sanskrit orthographic conventions — aspirates like ಭ, ಧ, ಥ are replaced by their unaspirated equivalents ಬ, ದ, ತ. This double commitment — native terminology and simplified spelling — makes the book both a work of historical linguistics and a statement about how Kannada scholarship should be conducted.

Table of Contents

Chapter 1 — Overview

(ಮುನ್ನೋಟ)

ಕನ್ನಡ → Eke →

1.1 The Dravidian Family and South Dravidian

The opening chapter situates Kannada within the Dravidian language family, which comprises approximately 26 languages spoken primarily across South and Central India. Dravidian languages are classified into three or four sub-groups: South Dravidian (ತೆಂಕುದ್ರಾವಿಡ), Central Dravidian, and North Dravidian. Kannada belongs to the South Dravidian sub-branch alongside Tamil, Malayalam, Kodagu, Tulu, Toda, Kota, Irula, Kurumba, and Badaga. The author explains how the reconstruction of Proto-Dravidian forms is possible through the comparative method: by identifying systematic correspondences among the modern Dravidian languages, linguists can posit the ancestral form from which all the modern forms descended.

1.2 Branching and Dialects

The chapter describes three mechanisms by which a proto-language branches into daughter languages: geographical separation, social separation, and contact with other languages. For Kannada specifically, the author notes significant dialect variation between coastal varieties (ಕರಾವಳಿ ಕನ್ನಡ) and inland varieties (ನಾಡ ಕನ್ನಡ). Havyaka Kannada, spoken by a coastal Brahmin community in the Western Ghats region, is particularly important because it preserves many Proto-Dravidian features that the inland dialects have lost or innovated. Badaga, spoken in the Nilgiri hills, is treated in this book as a sub-dialect of Kannada rather than a separate language, a classification that the author defends throughout with comparative evidence.

1.3 Scope and Method

The chapter concludes by stating the book’s method: reconstruction of Proto-Dravidian forms (marked with an asterisk ) is based on comparison across South Dravidian languages, with Tamil serving as a primary comparator because it is the most extensively documented and because Tamil inscriptions provide the oldest dated records of South Dravidian. The author uses Old Kannada inscriptional evidence to track changes within Kannada’s own history. The reconstruction does not attempt to go back further than Proto-South-Dravidian (the stage just before the South Dravidian languages diverged), and readers are referred to Krishnamurti’s *The Dravidian Languages (2003) for broader comparative detail. The purpose is not merely historical but practical: understanding how Kannada got to its current state illuminates the structure of the language as it is used today.

Chapter 2 — Root Vowels

(ಬೇರಿನ ಸ್ವರಗಳು)

ಕನ್ನಡ → Eke →

2.1 The Proto-Dravidian Vowel System

Proto-Dravidian had five vowel qualities — a, i, u, e, o — each occurring in short and long forms, giving ten root vowels. The author calls these “root vowels” (ಬೇರಿನ ಸ್ವರ) because they appear in the root syllable of a word, as opposed to “affix vowels” (ಒಟ್ಟಿನ ಸ್ವರ) which appear in suffixes (covered in Chapter 3). A crucial typological property is that Proto-Dravidian roots were predominantly disyllabic, with the root vowel in the first syllable. The book traces what happened to each of these ten vowels as Proto-Dravidian evolved into Kannada.

2.2 Vowel Raising

One of the most important changes between Proto-Dravidian and inland Kannada is vowel raising (ಸ್ವರ ಮೇಲೇರಿಕೆ): the mid vowels *e and *o raised to i and u respectively when the following syllable contained a high vowel (i or u). This change did not occur in coastal dialects such as Havyaka Kannada, which preserves the original *e and *o in these environments. For example, where inland Kannada has the form with i, Havyaka retains e, providing direct evidence for the direction of change. This single rule accounts for a large number of correspondences between coastal and inland Kannada forms.

2.3 Vowel Lowering and Length Changes

Proto-Dravidian also had cases of vowel lowering (ಸ್ವರ ಕೆಳಗಿಳಿಕೆ): under certain conditions *i and *u lowered to e and o in some Dravidian languages including Kannada. Vowel length was also variable: some Proto-Dravidian long vowels shortened in Kannada, and some short vowels lengthened. The author traces the conditions governing these changes — often dependent on the shape of the syllable, the nature of the following consonant, or the presence of gemination — and documents where Kannada dialects differ from one another in these length changes.

2.4 Special Vowel Developments

The chapter also discusses the development of the low central vowel *a: Proto-Dravidian *a in certain environments underwent fronting or backing in different daughter languages. Kannada generally preserved *a but there are context-dependent alternations. Proto-Dravidian *u in certain word positions became unrounded in some forms. Nasalised vowels, a feature found in some Dravidian languages, are not productive in standard Kannada but leave traces in a few forms. The chapter concludes (2.5 ತಿರುಳು) that the root vowel system of Kannada is broadly inherited from Proto-Dravidian, with the main innovation being the inland vowel-raising rule and certain length adjustments.

Chapter 3 — Affix Vowels

(ಒಟ್ಟಿನ ಸ್ವರಗಳು)

ಕನ್ನಡ → Eke →

3.1 The Proto-Dravidian Affix Vowel System

Proto-Dravidian allowed only three vowels in suffix (affix) position: *a, *i, and *u. The mid vowels *e and *o did not occur in Proto-Dravidian suffixes. This constraint — which the author calls the “affix vowel restriction” — is important because the presence of *e or *o in a suffix in a modern Dravidian language is always the result of a later change, not inherited directly. Understanding this principle is a key to distinguishing archaic from innovative suffix forms across the Dravidian languages.

3.2 Change of *ay to e

The most significant affix vowel change in Kannada is the development of *-ay to -e. Proto-Dravidian had a suffix *-ay (a sequence of *a + *y glide) which in Kannada merged into a single vowel -e. This accounts for the -e final vowel seen in many Kannada nouns and verb forms. Tamil, which is more conservative in this respect, still preserves the -ai sequence in many of the same environments, providing direct comparative evidence for the direction of change. The author illustrates this with numerous word pairs.

3.3 Other Affix Vowel Changes

Additional changes include: the shortening of long affix vowels in certain environments; the loss of affix vowels word-finally under specific conditions; and the merger of two adjacent short vowels into a single long vowel through compensatory lengthening. The chapter also traces how the loss or change of Proto-Dravidian suffix vowels affected the shape of the modern Kannada suffix inventory. The chapter concludes (3.5 ತಿರುಳು) that while the inventory of root vowels was largely preserved from Proto-Dravidian, the affix vowel system underwent significant restructuring, with the most important single change being *-ay > -e, which is one of the distinctive innovations of the South Dravidian sub-branch.

Chapter 4 — Stops

(ತಡೆಯುಲಿಗಳು)

ಕನ್ನಡ → Eke →

4.1 The Proto-Dravidian Stop System

Proto-Dravidian had five places of articulation for stops: labial (p), dental (t), retroflex (ṭ), palatal (c), and velar (k). There was also a sound transcribed as *ẓ — a retroflex approximant or fricative — which patterns like a stop in terms of its positional behaviour. Proto-Dravidian did not distinguish voiced from voiceless stops phonemically; the voiced/voiceless distinction that characterises modern Kannada and most other Dravidian languages is a later development. This chapter is the longest in the book because the history of stops is complex: the same Proto-Dravidian stop produced different outcomes depending on whether it was in word-initial, word-medial single, or word-medial geminate position.

4.2 Initial Stops

In word-initial position, Proto-Dravidian *p- underwent a distinctive change: it became h- in most varieties of Kannada (and sometimes zero, i.e., complete deletion of the consonant). Tamil and Malayalam preserve the original *p- in initial position, so comparison immediately reveals the change. Initial *t- and *ṭ- remained stable in most environments. Initial *c- in Kannada became s- in some positions and remained c- in others, with the distribution conditioned by the following vowel. Initial *k- was generally stable. These initial-stop developments are illustrated with systematic word comparisons across Tamil, Malayalam, Tulu, and Kannada.

4.3 Medial Single Stops and Geminates

In intervocalic (medial single) position, Proto-Dravidian stops underwent lenition (softening): *p became v or b; *c became s; *ẓ became r or ḷ; *k became g or was lost in some environments. The retroflex *ṭ was more stable than the other stops. Geminate (doubled) stops were also subject to lenition in some Kannada dialects, though less so than single stops: Havyaka Kannada is particularly notable for preserving geminate stops (excepting ṭ geminates) after short vowels in contexts where other dialects have simplified them. Post-nasal stops in Proto-Dravidian were voiceless but became voiced in Kannada, accounting for the voiced stops that follow nasals in modern Kannada words.

4.4 The Voiced/Voiceless Distinction

The chapter concludes (4.5 ತಿರುಳು) by summarising how the phonemic voiced/voiceless distinction in Kannada stops arose from originally non-phonemic conditioning environments in Proto-Dravidian. The word-initial position, the post-nasal position, and the intervocalic position each created distinct allophones of Proto-Dravidian stops; as the conditioning environments became opaque (through vowel changes and other changes), these allophones became contrastive phonemes. Kannada thus innovated a richer stop inventory than Proto-Dravidian had — a case of increased phonemic complexity through historical change.

Chapter 5 — Other Consonants

(ಇತರ ವ್ಯಂಜನಗಳು)

ಕನ್ನಡ → Eke →

5.1 The Nasal Consonants

Proto-Dravidian had four nasal consonants: labial (m), dental (n), retroflex (ṇ), and palatal (ñ). Of these, ñ (the palatal nasal) lost its distinctive phonemic function in Kannada: in most Kannada varieties ñ merged with n. The labial m was stable. The dental n and retroflex ṇ were generally preserved, though in word-medial and final positions there were some environment-specific changes. The author documents these changes with comparative data from Tamil and Telugu, which in many cases preserve the original Proto-Dravidian nasals more faithfully, enabling reconstruction.

5.2 Liquids and Laterals

Proto-Dravidian had two lateral consonants — dental l and retroflex ḷ — and a trill/flap r. The retroflex lateral ḷ is preserved in Kannada (written ಳ) and is one of the distinctive features of the Eke romanisation system (where it is written L). In some Kannada dialects the l/ḷ distinction has been reduced in certain positions, but the distinction is robust in the standard language. The retroflex approximant *ẓ of Proto-Dravidian (treated together with stops in Chapter 4 for distributional reasons) became r or ḷ in Kannada. The trill r was generally preserved but underwent some positional changes.

5.3 Glides and Approximants

Proto-Dravidian had two glides — y (palatal) and v (labial). These were generally stable in Kannada, though v became b in certain positions (particularly after i and u in some dialects). The author also discusses the retroflex lateral approximant ḷ in its glide-like functions. The chapter concludes (5.5 ತಿರುಳು) that the non-stop consonant system of Kannada is broadly conservative relative to Proto-Dravidian, with the main change being the loss of phonemic distinctiveness of ñ. The most distinctive feature of Kannada’s consonant system compared to northern Indo-Aryan languages is the preservation of the retroflex series (ṭ, ḍ, ṇ, ḷ), which Dravidian languages have maintained throughout their history.

Chapter 6 — Internal Structure of Words

(ಪದಗಳ ಒಳರಚನೆ)

ಕನ್ನಡ → Eke →

6.1 Three Root Types

Proto-Dravidian, like modern Kannada, had three types of roots: noun-roots (ನಾಮ ಬೇರು, nAma bEru), verb-roots (ಕ್ರಿಯಾ ಬೇರು, kriyA bEru), and qualifier-roots (ಗುಣ ಬೇರು, guNa bEru). These three root types correspond to the three major word classes in Kannada. Crucially, in Proto-Dravidian and in Kannada, a root can function directly as a word of its class without needing any additional suffix: a noun-root can be used directly as a noun, a verb-root as a verb, and a qualifier-root as a qualifier. This is a fundamentally different situation from Sanskrit, where verbal roots (dhatu) are primary and nouns are derived from them by obligatory suffixes.

6.2 Word Formation Mechanisms

The chapter surveys the major mechanisms of word formation in Kannada from a historical perspective. New nouns can be formed from verb-roots by suffixation (with suffixes like -ike, -ata, -a, -al, -vu), from noun-roots by compounding, and from qualifier-roots by direct use or suffixation. New verb-roots can be formed through causativisation (Chapter 7 treats this in detail) and through compounding with noun or qualifier elements. Qualifier-roots can be used directly or formed by derivation from noun or verb roots. The chapter stresses that these mechanisms are all native to Dravidian and need not be described through the lens of Sanskrit grammar.

6.3 Compounds and Derivation

Proto-Dravidian had a productive system of compounding — joining two words to form a new word whose meaning is not fully predictable from its parts. Kannada has inherited and extended this system. The chapter also discusses derivation — the addition of suffixes to existing words to create new words — and traces which Kannada derivational suffixes are inherited from Proto-Dravidian and which are innovations. The chapter concludes (6.5 ತಿರುಳು) that the fundamental organisation of Kannada word structure — three root types, direct use of roots, compounding, and derivation — is Proto-Dravidian in origin, and that many of the specific suffixes and compounds found in modern Kannada can be traced back to reconstructed Proto-Dravidian forms.

Chapter 7 — Internal Structure of Verbs

(ಕ್ರಿಯಾಪದಗಳ ಒಳರಚನೆ)

ಕನ್ನಡ → Eke →

7.1 The Fundamental Verb Distinction: Aguvike and Maduvike

The most important distinction in the Kannada verb system is not the transitive/intransitive (sakarmaka/akarmaka) distinction used in Sanskrit grammar, but rather the distinction between verbs describing processes that happen spontaneously (ಆಗುವಿಕೆ, Aguvike — “happenings”) and verbs describing actions done intentionally by an agent (ಮಾಡುವಿಕೆ, mADuvike — “doings”). This distinction is fundamental in Proto-Dravidian and is preserved in Kannada. The author argues at length that applying the Sanskrit transitive/intransitive distinction to Kannada systematically misrepresents how Kannada verbal semantics and morphology work.

7.2 Causativisation: Proto-Dravidian *t and Kannada -isu

In Proto-Dravidian, a causative verb (one expressing that an agent causes a process to happen) was formed from a spontaneous-process verb by adding the suffix *-t. This is reconstructable from comparison across South Dravidian languages: Tamil and other languages preserve forms with this suffix. In Kannada, this inherited suffix *-t became non-productive and was replaced by the suffix -isu (ಇಸು), which is highly productive in modern Kannada. The verb ಮುಳುಗು “to sink” (spontaneous) → ಮುಳುಗಿಸು “to cause to sink / to immerse” (caused) illustrates this suffix in action. The chapter traces the intermediate stages through which the old *-t suffix forms gave way to the new -isu forms.

7.3 Old and New Kannada Verb Forms

Comparing Old Kannada inscriptions with modern Kannada reveals systematic changes in verb morphology. Several verb suffixes that were productive in Old Kannada (visible in inscriptions from the 5th century onwards) have become non-productive or archaic in modern Kannada. The chapter documents these changes using inscriptional data and shows that the direction of change is consistently toward simpler and more regular paradigms in modern Kannada, though coastal dialects again tend to preserve older forms more faithfully than the inland literary standard. The chapter concludes (7.4 ತಿರುಳು) that the core verb morphology of Kannada — the happening/doing distinction and the causative suffix — is directly inherited from Proto-Dravidian, while the specific suffix forms have been considerably restructured.

Chapter 8 — Verb Forms

(ಕ್ರಿಯಾರೂಪಗಳು)

ಕನ್ನಡ → Eke →

8.1 The Structure of Verb Forms

A fully inflected Kannada verb form encodes multiple categories: tense (past, future, or present), and person-number-gender agreement with the subject. The chapter describes the Proto-Dravidian system for each of these categories and traces how Kannada developed from it. Proto-Dravidian had a past tense suffix *-nt- and a future/non-past suffix *-v(p)-. These are reconstructable from comparison across Dravidian: Tamil, Telugu, and Kannada all show reflex forms of these suffixes, though the modern forms differ considerably owing to later phonological changes.

8.2 Person Agreement Suffixes

Proto-Dravidian verb forms also carried person agreement: first person (speaker), second person (addressee), and third person (other), with number (singular and plural). A typologically interesting feature of Proto-Dravidian and many South Dravidian languages is the inclusive/exclusive distinction in the first person plural: “we” could mean either “we (including you, the addressee)” (inclusive, ಒಳಗೊಳ್ಳುವ) or “we (excluding you)” (exclusive, ಒಳಗೊಳ್ಳದ). Kannada’s inland dialects and the literary standard have lost this distinction, merging both into a single first person plural. Coastal dialects, and historical Kannada evidenced in some inscriptions, preserve the distinction, enabling its reconstruction.

8.3 Negation and Non-Finite Forms

Proto-Dravidian also had a negative suffix *-A (a long negative vowel) that negated verbs, giving rise to negative verb forms. Modern Kannada has restructured its negation system somewhat, but traces of the inherited system are visible. The chapter also covers non-finite verb forms — the forms used in subordinate clauses (relative clauses, conjunctive clauses, conditional clauses) — and traces their Proto-Dravidian origins. Coastal and inland Kannada dialects again show systematic differences in the preservation of older subordinate verb forms. The chapter concludes (8.5 ತಿರుಳು) that the overall architecture of the Kannada verb form — tense-marker + agreement-marker — is inherited from Proto-Dravidian, but the specific morphs have changed substantially, especially in the inland literary standard.

Chapter 9 — Nouns

(ನಾಮಪದಗಳು)

ಕನ್ನಡ → Eke →

9.1 Noun Formation

Nouns in Kannada can be formed from all three root types: directly from noun-roots, from verb-roots by suffixation, and from qualifier-roots by direct use or suffixation. The chapter surveys noun-forming suffixes and traces which ones are inherited from Proto-Dravidian and which are innovations. Several Proto-Dravidian noun-forming suffixes are reconstructable: *-m (which gave -vu in Kannada), *-i, and various others. The suffixes visible in modern Kannada nouns are often reduced, merged, or reanalysed forms of these Proto-Dravidian originals.

9.2 Gender and Number

Proto-Dravidian nouns were classified not by a masculine/feminine/neuter gender system (as in Sanskrit) but by a binary distinction: human (ఉచ్చ, rational) vs. non-human (ಅಲ್ಪ, non-rational). This binary is preserved in Kannada: human nouns require human agreement on verbs and take human plural markers, while non-human nouns take different agreement forms. The Sanskrit-derived masculine/feminine/neuter categories sometimes imposed on Kannada noun description by grammarians influenced by Sanskrit do not reflect the actual Kannada system. Number marking in Proto-Dravidian used suffixes *-kaḷ (plural, still preserved in Kannada as -gaḷu / -kaḷu) and various singulative markers.

9.3 Case

Proto-Dravidian had a system of case suffixes: genitive, dative, accusative, locative, instrumental, ablative, and sociative. These suffixes have evolved in different ways across Dravidian languages. Kannada has preserved the genitive -a and -ina, dative -ge/-ige/-ke, accusative -annu, locative -alli, instrumental -inda, ablative -inda, and sociative -oda(ne). The chapter traces the Proto-Dravidian source of each and documents how phonological changes have altered the specific forms. The chapter concludes (9.5 ತಿರುಳು) that Kannada’s noun morphology is structurally conservative relative to Proto-Dravidian, with the main changes being phonological rather than structural, and with the human/non-human gender system maintained throughout.

Chapter 10 — Personal and Demonstrative Pronouns

(ಆಡುಗ ಮತ್ತು ತೋರುಗ ಪದಗಳು)

ಕನ್ನಡ → Eke →

10.1 Personal Pronouns

Proto-Dravidian personal pronouns are reconstructable with reasonable confidence from comparison across Dravidian languages. The first person singular was *yān (I), which gave Kannada nānu (the initial *y- became n- through a sound change). The second person singular was *nīn (you), preserved in Kannada as nīnu. The third person forms were demonstrative in origin (see section 10.2). The first person plural showed the inclusive/exclusive distinction: *yām (exclusive we) and *nām (inclusive we). In inland Kannada and the literary standard these two have merged into a single form nāvu, erasing the inclusive/exclusive distinction that is typologically significant in Proto-Dravidian.

10.2 Demonstrative Pronouns

Proto-Dravidian had a three-way demonstrative system: proximate (near the speaker), medial (near the addressee), and distal (far from both). This three-way system is preserved in Tamil (itu/itu-a/atu for “this/that-mid/that-far”) and partially in other Dravidian languages. Kannada has reduced this to a two-way system: idu (this, proximate) and adu (that, distal), collapsing the original medial and distal into a single distal category. The Kannada pronoun ivu (human proximate) and avu (human distal) form the human equivalents of this two-way system. The chapter concludes (10.4 ತಿರುಳು) that pronoun changes in Kannada relative to Proto-Dravidian involve: loss of inclusive/exclusive distinction in the first person plural, and collapse of the three-way demonstrative distinction to a two-way distinction — both innovations not found in more conservative Dravidian languages like Tamil.

Chapter 11 — Qualifiers

(ಗುಣಪದಗಳು)

ಕನ್ನಡ → Eke →

11.1 Two Types of Qualifier

Kannada qualifiers (ಗುಣಪದ, guNapada) fall into two types with distinct historical origins. The first type — nominal qualifiers (ನಾಮ-ಗುಣಪದ, nAma-guNapada) — modifies nouns and expresses the stable properties of entities (colour, size, shape, quality). The second type — verbal qualifiers (ಕ್ರಿಯಾ-ಗುಣಪದ, kriyA-guNapada) — modifies verbs and expresses manner, degree, or circumstance of an action. This two-part distinction is grounded in Proto-Dravidian: both types can be traced to source forms in the ancestor language. A third functional type — imitative words (ಅಣಕಿಸುವ ಪದ) — also functions as a qualifier, expressing the manner of an action through phonetic iconicity (onomatopoeia and sound symbolism).

11.2 Sources of Qualifiers

Qualifiers in Kannada can be derived from all three root types: from qualifier-roots (the most straightforward case), from noun-roots (by using the noun directly as a pre-nominal modifier, as in ಬಂಗಾರ ಉಂಗುರ “gold ring”), and from verb-roots (through the formation of verbal relative participles, which function as qualifiers modifying the noun they precede). The verbal qualifier type is particularly interesting historically because it reflects Proto-Dravidian structures for subordinating one clause within a noun phrase. The chapter concludes (11.4 ತಿರುಳು) that the qualifier system of Kannada is broadly inherited from Proto-Dravidian, with the distinction between nominal and verbal qualifiers being an archaic Dravidian feature rather than a Kannada innovation.

Chapter 12 — Sentence Structure

(ವಾಕ್ಯಗಳ ಒಳರಚನೆ)

ಕನ್ನಡ → Eke →

12.1 Action Sentences and State Sentences

The final chapter turns to sentence structure and traces what comparative Dravidian linguistics can reveal about the historical development of Kannada syntax. The author distinguishes two fundamental sentence types: action sentences (ಎಸಕದ ವಾಕ್ಯ), in which a verb predicate expresses an action or process, and state sentences (ಇರಿಕೆಯ ವಾಕ್ಯ), in which the predicate expresses a state. This distinction, present in Proto-Dravidian, is maintained in modern Kannada. Both sentence types in Kannada place the verb at the end (SOV word order), which is the Proto-Dravidian word order and is characteristic of all Dravidian languages.

12.2 Subordinate Structures

Dravidian languages use verb-based subordinate forms to express what European languages often express through relative clauses, adverbial clauses, and complement clauses. Proto-Dravidian had a rich system of non-finite verb forms for this purpose: conjunctive (sequential, “having done”), conditional (“if doing”), temporal (“when doing”), and relative participle (“the thing/person that does”). Kannada has preserved all these types but has restructured the specific morphological forms that realise them. Old Kannada inscriptions show older forms of these subordinating affixes, and comparison with Tamil and other Dravidian languages enables reconstruction of the Proto-Dravidian source forms.

12.3 Dialect Variation and the Limits of Reconstruction

The chapter and book conclude (12.5 ತಿರುಳು) with an acknowledgement of the limits of current knowledge: the exact nature of Proto-Dravidian sentence structure is not yet fully clear, and further research across the Dravidian languages — particularly the less-studied Central and North Dravidian varieties — is needed to reconstruct Proto-Dravidian syntax with confidence. What can be established is the overall shape of Kannada sentence structure (SOV order, verb-final subordination, the action/state distinction) and several specific changes in subordinating morphology between Old Kannada and modern varieties. Badaga is noted as preserving certain subordinating suffixes that are of comparative interest, having borrowed at least one suffix from Tamil contact. The book closes by directing readers to the bibliography for further research sources in comparative Dravidian linguistics.

Key Terms Glossary

Kannada Eke (Romanisation) English
ಮೂಲದ್ರಾವಿಡ mUladravIDa Proto-Dravidian
ತೆಂಕುದ್ರಾವಿಡ tenkudravIDa South Dravidian
ಒಳನುಡಿ oLanuDi dialect
ಕರಾವಳಿ ಕನ್ನಡ karAvaLi kannaDa coastal Kannada
ಹವ್ಯಕ ಕನ್ನಡ havyaka kannaDa Havyaka Kannada
ಬಡಗ baDaga Badaga
ಬೇರಿನ ಸ್ವರ bErina svara root vowel
ಒಟ್ಟಿನ ಸ್ವರ oTTina svara affix vowel
ಸ್ವರ ಮೇಲೇರಿಕೆ svara mElErike vowel raising
ಸ್ವರ ಕೆಳಗಿಳಿಕೆ svara keLagiLike vowel lowering
ತಡೆಯುಲಿ taDeyuli stop consonant
ಮೂಗುಲಿ mUguli nasal consonant
ಪಕ್ಕದುಲಿ pakkaduli lateral consonant
ಹೊಡೆಯುಲಿ hoDeyuli flap / trill
ತಡೆಯಿಲ್ಲದುಲಿ taDeyilladuli approximant / glide
ಉಲಿಕಂತೆ ulikante syllable
ಕೊರಳಿಸಿದ koraLisida voiced
ಕೊರಳಿಸದ koraLisada voiceless
ನಾಮ ಬೇರು nAma bEru noun root
ಕ್ರಿಯಾ ಬೇರು kriyA bEru verb root
ಗುಣ ಬೇರು guNa bEru qualifier root
ಆಗುವಿಕೆ Aguvike spontaneous process (happening)
ಮಾಡುವಿಕೆ mADuvike intentional action (doing)
ಒಳಗೊಳ್ಳುವ oLagoLLuva inclusive (we including you)
ಒಳಗೊಳ್ಳದ oLagoLLada exclusive (we excluding you)
ತೋರುಗ ಪದ tOruga pada demonstrative pronoun
ಆಡುಗ ಪದ ADuga pada personal pronoun
ನಾಮ-ಗುಣಪದ nAma-guNapada nominal qualifier (adjective)
ಕ್ರಿಯಾ-ಗುಣಪದ kriyA-guNapada verbal qualifier (adverb)
ಅಣಕಿಸುವ ಪದ aNakisuva pada imitative / expressive word
ಎಸಕದ ವಾಕ್ಯ esakada vAkya action sentence
ಇರಿಕೆಯ ವಾಕ್ಯ irikeya vAkya state sentence
ಹೊಸ ಬರಹ hosa baraha simplified (new) spelling
ನುಡಿಯರಿಮೆ nuDiyarime linguistics

This document is an English-language overview of D. N. Shankara Bhat’s ಕನ್ನಡ ನುಡಿ ನಡೆದು ಬಂದ ದಾರಿ (2007), based on the original Kannada text in book/kn/raw.

See also: